STYLE IN FITNESS: THE ROLE OF MASS MEDIA IN FITNESS

Bodybuilding is an art form, and I have always held the opinion that a person's physical structure should be aesthetically pleasing, whilst retaining functionality. I have found that the kind of body developed by individuals has changed over the years in line with the kind of physical structure favoured by the media. However, I have realised that there are a lot of people out there who like training, working out, and even like competing, but who don't want to look like the modern bodybuilder. 

The Modern Man

In the period between 1890 to 1920, when bodybuilding was still called 'physical culture' emphasis was placed on a practitioner's ability to perform magnificent feats of strength whilst looking presentable in suits, which were the everyday clothes worn at the time. Thus his training was focused on lifting consistently heavy weights and performing gymnastic and calisthenic exercises. A lean, muscular and strong physique was favoured, and definition and symmetry was not particularly required in competitions, leading to the rather rough edged bodies of the time. 

 

In writing this article, I had recourse to Health and Strength magazine, one of the oldest fitness publications, reaching back as far as 1876 as well as Mens Health, Flex and other fitness material.

  

 

With the period between 1925 and 1950, the aesthetic seemed to have changed due to the increased acceptance of fitness, the advent of fitness competitions and increased magazine distribution, requiring bodybuilders to develop more visually pleasing bodies as well as a bulkier physique.  Definition, symmetry and cleaner lines were prized at this time, and emphasis on strength  was reduced in order to appeal to the general public.  

Women started to participate in fitness competitions as feminism gained more adherents and women became increadingly encouraged to take control of their destinies. This led to fitness publications featuring more female models, presumably because women clad in skimpy outfits may have sold more magazines. Female fitness models were expected to retain their femininity have broad shoulders, flat stomachs and tiny waists.

 

 

I believe something went wrong between 1950 and 1960, especially with the increased proliferation of the television and the development of broadcast media as a competitor to print media. It seemed like the media was trying to define how a bodybuilder should look. There was a conflict between the way print media believed an accomplished bodybuilder should look, and this influenced the governing aesthetic.  As you can see in the magazine covers below, the model on the left is far slimmer and more defined than the model on the right. A bulkier, less defined physique with broad shoulders and slim arms was preferred in the 50's and you can see this in the way movie stars of the day were built.

 At this time, it seems that female fitness was de-emphasised, as female models seemed to appear only on precious few covers. It should be noted that the Miss World (1951) and Miss Universe (1952) pageants commenced within this time and it is possible that public opinion may have required that emphasis be placed on female beauty, as opposed to athletic ability. The rise of beauty pageants possibly led to the rise of the 'burn fat!!!' movement and the portrayal of the thin woman as 'beautiful'.  

 

Happily, the conflict of the 50's gave way to a resurgence of enlightened bodybuilding between 1960 and 1969, probably due to increased education about nutrition and innovations in training equipment which enabled bodybuilders train with improved effectiveness and recieve quicker results.  However, this aesthetic changed with the rise of the Mr. Olympia and media preference for larger than life bodybuilders. Between 1970 and 1990 the increasing use of steroids and supplements by bodybuilders led to the evolution of the superhuman bodybuilder. There was also a resurgence of interest in female fitness, although the reappearance of women on magazine covers was more of an exploitation of their sexuality than an affirmation of their place within the fitness world.

From 1970, increased emphasis has been placed on muscle size and definition, leading to the prominence of the 'six-pack' as evidence of fitness. Innovations in training methodology also enabled the development of finely defined physiques. 

The rise of the internet and the explosion of fitness websites and enhanced information about fitness has led to the growth of a movement towards individual fitness. Ordinary people are becoming increasingly aware of their ability to change their bodies and improve their quality of life. 

 

 

 

 

 

WEAPON TRAINING FOR FITNESS: THE GLADIATOR

 

In the Roman Empire, Gladiators engaged in mortal combat within the Arena for the benefit of the populace. These life and death contests required strength, agility in addition to phenomenal amounts of endurance and skill and the gladiators were required to train for several hours each day in order to develop these attributes to the highest degree possible. 

Gladiatoral training consisted of calisthenics and weightlifting in order to build muscle size and endurance, wrestling and grappling sessions, and armatura, training with weapons. Weapons training involved the use of heavy wooden swords and shields, based on the belief that the effective employment of these equipment during training would translate to its use in the field of battle. The gladiator was required to strike repeatedly at a wooden dummy called a palus with his sword, spear or any other weapon in which he was supposed to be proficient, in order to build muscle endurance and striking power, hand to eye coordination, as well as developing muscle memory.  Once the trainee was deemed satisfactorily proficient against the palus, he was pitted against a human opponent of similar or greater skill in order to develop skill, battle judgement and quick reflexes, attributes which were often the difference between life and death in the hand to hand contests which occured in the arenas all over the Roman Empire. 

The gladiatorial training methods were subsequently extended to soldiers after the gladiators deadly effectiveness was felt by the Republic during the Servile Wars depicted in the Spartacus series. Training in arms came to viewed as an important part of the soldier's training and this was transferred to all territories which formed part of the Roman Empire. 

In replicating the gladiatorial training process, I had recourse to several contemporary training manuals and found that the effective gladiator required substantial body mass in order to absorb injuries from weapons without substantial disability. To achieve the necessary bulk, they lifted weights such as the halteres (stone dumbells), Bybon stones and weighted stone vases. the gladiators were required to train wearing extra-heavy armour in order to build their stamina and cardiovascular endurance.

Ancient weights

 A modern gladiator should train with kettlebells, Atlas stones, dumbells and barbells (avoid weight machines). I have found it very effective to start training by lifting half of your one rep maximum for several reps until you feel close to muscle failure (alternatively, you could execute pullups till muscle failure), then you proceed to lift your one rep maximum, rest for 2 minutes, and lift your one rep max again. Do this until you reach complete muscle failure, then give the muscle 2 days rest before working it hard again. This regime would force your body to increase in mass and strength over a relatively short period of time, as you keep pushing your musles to the edge of their ability. 


To build striking power, the gladiator had to train against a palus; the modern gladiator can substitute with heavy bag training. What I normally advise is to carry out heavy bag training everyday after weight work in order to accustom the muscles to striking as well as enhancing cardio vascular and muscular endurance. Ensure that you wrap your hands properly and use proper form in order to avoid wrist injuries. 

To build the agility and battle awareness required to fight highly mobile opponents such as the retiarus, gladiators ran through obstacle courses and sparred ceaselessly with fellow gladiators. For the modern gladiator, this translates into everyday rope work; you have to love that skipping rope!!!! I also advice taking up a martial art which requires constant sparring such as capoeira, karate, and jeet kune do as it helps build your physical condition, as your body believes it is under attack and evolves to meet the attack.

As you commence the journey that will convert you into a modern gladiator, make sure you undertake regular medical checks to ensure that your health can take the intense training required amnd remember to REST and EAT!!!! Adequate rest and nutrition were hallmarks of gladiatorial training; the trainees ate food rich in carbohydrates, fats and proteins in order to build their body mass. They ate at least 3 times each day, more than their masters who normally ate 2 meals a day. It is literally impossible to gain the required muscle mass if you do not eat properly!!!